A Story About Data and Data Comprehension: From Notched Bones to the Digital Age
From January 19 to 22, FIBER hosted Part 4 of its Reassemble Lab: The Weathercapes Lab. The Lab broadly explored how the weather works; from the relationship between weather and climate as well as the relationships between weather measurements and the development of contemporary forecasting models and computer technology, and more. Throughout history, humans have recognized the value of collecting data, from primitive notches on bones to today’s vast digital landscape. Kasper de Vries was part of the lab and in his article he explores the evolution of data, highlighting its collection and the diverse forms it can take. From ancient inscriptions to modern computerised systems, technological advancements have transformed the way we collect and interpret data.
During a workshop by Mark Ijzerman (as part of the programme of the Weatherscapes Lab), we handled data from various online sources. While these represented the same natural phenomena (the weather), it was inspiring to see that a fear-inducing force of nature had been reduced to mere data points incorporated in apps and many other digital utilities. Many real-life systems and events have been transformed into data in the digital age. However, humans have collected data in various forms throughout the ages, from tallying the number of animals hunted to counting a city’s population. As technology advances, data collection and visualisation have expanded beyond weather patterns. Today, we live in an age where data is constantly being collected, whether from social media usage, website traffic, or even smartphone sensors. But what is the story behind the data we collect, and how do we make sense of it?
One talk during the Weatherscapes LAB by Robert-Jan Wille elaborated on Meteorological Infrastructures emerging throughout history within North Africa and Eurasia. The talk emphasised the emergence of ‘Knowledge infrastructures’, answering why weather signs became the meteorology we know today. It encompasses measurement tools, techniques, social and socio-technical systems such as specialised institutions, conventions, laws and theories, and shared standards between communities.
Robert-Jan Wille chronologically elaborated on the developments of these infrastructures from ancient Mesopotamia, India, and China (3000–500 BCE), where the collection of weather patterns was one of the oldest infrastructures to exist. In later periods (500–1600 BCE), new philosophies regarding weather and intermingling scholars on the Silk Road in Eurasia proliferated the amount of weather data available. A paradigm shift happened as instruments were being developed to measure aspects of the weather in separate regions of the world. Thus, local scale observation patterns became a global scale body of weather knowledge, due to intermingling factors and institutions.
After the presentation, some thoughts lingered in my head, how was data collected throughout history, and in what forms? This question popped up as I work with data within the computer science domain. These include integers, strings, Booleans, characters, and floats. There are ordinal, categorical, and numerical (discrete and continuous) data in statistics. In research, one could collect quantitative and qualitative data; the former is based on numbers and is countable or quantifiable, and the latter is interpretive, descriptive, and language-related. But the data can take many forms, it could be extracted from historical documents or unique ice-core samples from melting glaciers.
Therefore, from a domain perspective, not every type of data represents the same phenomena. As there are meteorological, financial, natural, and municipal data regarding trash collection, you name it, and a corresponding data source exists. In a nutshell, data is a collection of values communicating information about a particular subject. So how did the data as we know it evolve throughout history?
Brief History of Data and Data Comprehension
The Lebombo bone [1] is one of the earliest known mathematical artefacts discovered within the Border Cave in the Lebombo Mountains of Swaziland (~44000 BCE). Onto a baboon’s fibula, a set of notches were inscribed to remember particular numbers or specific quantities. Secondly, the Ishango bone (~20000 BCE) is argued to contain mathematical calculations, where sections of notches could be grouped resulting in a mathematical equation. In a way, these are some of the oldest recordings of numerical values. The observed data is inscribed, visualised, and made comprehensible using the grouped notches.
Later (around 3300 BCE) clay tablets were used to inscribe and store data. According to M. Friendly [2], professor and writer on the history of data and information visualisation, the cuneiform inscriptions evolved to record information about trade and agriculture. After writing systems matured, complex observations of qualitative data could be recorded. The ‘Enuma Anu Enlil’ [3], a collection of about 70 tablets dealing with Babylonian astrology, resulted from the Sumerian temple priests developing a system to keep accurate accounts of their findings. The records included omens that described recent celestial events and their interpretation for the king. Much later, the Greek poet Hesiod (between 750 and 650 BC) wrote “Works and Days” [4] which included Greek astronomy and is also thought of as a farmer’s almanac as weather advice for both farmers and sailors is provided. The collected observation on the region’s climate was instilled within his works and made comprehensible using poetry.
During the 16th century, with the advancements in creating instruments and precise techniques for observation measurements a significant boom in data collection was upon us [5]. Colonial countries introduced routine collections of social statistics to provide the state with information on wealth, population, taxes, territory, etc. After this century, empirical data was being represented visually as plots and graphs started to emerge.
More recently, during the 19th century, we started to develop machinery capable of solving complex equations, or computers. Being capable of storing a vast amount of data due to the electronic components is becoming smaller and smaller. Later, the introduction of the internet resulted in an exponential amount of data being generated by its users.
Epilogue
The history of data collection and visualisation has come a long way, from handwritten ledgers to modern-day computerised systems. With technological advances and innovations, data can take many forms beyond traditional textual and numerical formats. Artistic styles can be interpreted by AI and remoulded into collective works, or entire musical discographies can be analysed and generated. The possibilities seem endless.
Furthermore, data is collected on various subjects, financial trends, social media usage, and other natural phenomena. However, we must remember that data represents reality, and reducing complex events to data points may lead to oversimplification and loss of context. Therefore, careful consideration regarding the interpretation and limitations of data is necessary to gain meaningful insights and to make informed decisions. This brief overview of the history of data collection and visualisation reminds us of the importance of understanding the context and story behind the data we collect.
Kasper de Vries is a passionate technologist, XR instructor, and researcher with a background in computer science. Having a broad interest in Immersive technology, Robotics, and advancements in generative AI. His research revolves around cracking the ‘space problem’ in virtual reality experiences, where a limited amount of physical space is enhanced in the digital environment using illusionary redirection techniques. Aside from his affinity with technology, he maintains a multi-disciplinary mindset, resulting in the collaboration of various (research) projects.
Sources:
[1] Abdul Karim Bangura. (2011) African mathematics: From bones to computers. University Press of America, chapter 2. ISBN 978–0–7618–5348–0
[2] Friendly, Michael & Chen, Chun-houh & Härdle, Wolfgang Karl & Unwin, Antony. (2008). A Brief History of Data Visualization. ISBN 10.1007/978–3–540–33037–0_2.
[3] Rasmussen, E.A. (2010). Vejret gennem 5000 år (Weather through 5000 years). Meteorologiens historie. Aarhus Universitetsforlag, Århus, Denmark, 367 pp, ISBN 978 87 7934 300 9. Interpreted trough: http://www.climate4you.com/ClimateAndHistory%205000-0%20BC.htm
[4] A translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White. (1914). Hesiod: Works and Days [Online]. Available: https://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/hesiod/works.htm
[5] Friendly, Michael & Wainer, Howard. (2020). A History of Data Visualization and Graphic Communication — Introduction. ISBN 9780674975231
